Pineapple production

 

Description

The pineapple is a tropical and subtropical fruit grown in many countries in Africa. In Uganda it is mainly grown south of Lake Kyoga and western Uganda. Ii is a tradable crop and generates reasonable income. It is used as a fruit as well as for producing juice. It is also used for making jam. In addition, it contains a protein digesting enzyme bromelain. Therefore, it can be used as a meat tenderizer. Leaves are used for making ropes and coarse cloth. Waste products from the juice canning industry are used as animal feed. http://www.naads.or.ug/files/downloads/PINEAPPLE%20PRODUCTION.pdf

 

Soil

The best soils for pineapple production are non-compacted, well-aerated and free-draining loams, sandy loams and clay loams with no heavy clay or rock within one metre of the surface. Good drainage is essential because poor drainages leads to a weak root system, which makes the plant more susceptible to root and heart rot diseases. A soil pH in the range of 4.5-5.6 is optimal for pineapple production.

 

Climate

Temperature is the most important climatic factor affecting productivity. The optimum air temperature is 32°C during the day and 20°C at night. For every 1°C above or below, the optimum growth rates decrease by about 6 per cent.

During periods of intense sunlight and high temperature (above about 35°C), fruit is susceptible to sunburn damage. A frost-free site is essential.

For non-irrigated crops, rainfall should be well distributed throughout the year and more than 750 mm per year. https://www.daf.qld.gov.au/plants/fruit-and-vegetables/fruit-and nuts/pineapples/land-requirements-pineapple

 

 

 

Varieties

“Smooth Cayenne”

“Smooth Cayenne” is a spineless pineapple cultivar that boasts sugary, low-fiber flesh and striped leaves. According to Purdue University, “Smooth Cayenne” accounts for 90 percent of the world’s canned fruit, despite the cultivar’s susceptibility to disease. Varieties of “Smooth Cayenne” include “Hilo,” a compact variety that was developed in Hawaii in 1960; “St. Michael,” an exceptionally sweet variety that lacks the highly acidic, tart flavor of most pineapples; and “Giant Kew,” a large-fruited variety popular in India that may weigh as much as 22 pounds.

 

“Abacaxi”

“Abacaxi” is a spiny, disease-resistant variety that produces tall pineapples marked by white, nearly translucent flesh that is tender, juicy and rich. Though considered one of the most delicious pineapple varieties, the plant, and its many varieties, ship poorly due to their fragility. “Sugarloaf,” a variety with equally tender, rich flesh and a conical or round shape, is derived from “Abacaxi,” and several strains have been developed from “Sugarloaf.” “Sugarloaf” strains include “Black Jamaica” and “Montufar,” a juicy, yellow-fruited variety.

 

“Queen”

Also known as “Common Rough,” “Queen” is a compact, dwarf variety that has a better tolerance of cold and disease than “Smooth Cayenne.” The plant produces dark yellow, fragrant fruits with a small core. It is more commonly used to eat fresh, as it does not can well. “Queen” varieties include South African “Natal Queen,” and “MacGregor,” a firm-fleshed fruit that grows from a spreading, broad-leaved and robust plant.

 

“Red Spanish”

“Red Spanish” is a tough variety grown in the West Indies, Mexico, and Venezuela. Fruits are light yellow, high in fibre and aromatic. The fruit is not nearly as tender as “Abacaxi,” so it doesn’t suffer as much from shipping and handling. Varieties include “Cabezona,” a large-fruited variety that must be cut off the plant with a machete due to its large, strong stem, and “Valera,” a small variety that has purple- and green-tinged, narrow leaves and purple-skinned fruits with white flesh. http://homeguides.sfgate.com/pineapple-plant-varieties-53203.html

 

Planting requirements

Pineapples can be grown in a variety of soil types but prefer mildly acid soils (pH 5,5_6,5). However, there are certain requirements for successful pineapple production, which include:

Preparing the soil

• Remove trees, stumps and stones
• Subsoil (rip) to a depth of 800 to 900 mm under dry conditions
• Disc, plough and till the soil a number of times, to achieve a fine tilt, for effective plant rooting
• Ridge the soil for better drainage, temperature and to improve aeration
• Have soil samples analysed at least 6 months before planting to determine fertilisation and fumigation requirements

Planting material

Unlike many other crops grown from seed, pineapples are grown by planting various parts of the plant according to the cultivar, where it is going to be produced, and the cultivation methods practised in the area.

Although crowns are mostly used as planting material for the Cayenne cultivar, they are considered uneconomical for the Queen cultivar because of the length of time they take to bear.

Suckers are planted in the case of Queen pineapple production. Slips bear sooner than crowns but they require a great deal of labour (to break them out and to remove the small fruit attached to their bases). Stumps are generally used when no other planting material is available.

 

A crown or top

 

 

Planting

In small plots or on very steep slopes, planting is done manually using the traditional short-handled narrow-bladed hoe, the handle of which, 12 in (30 cm) long, is used to measure the distance between plants. Crowns are set firmly at a depth of 2 in (5 cm); slips and suckers at 3 1/2 to 4 in (9 10 cm). Butts, after trimming and drying for several days, are laid end-to-end in furrows and covered with 4 in (10 cm) of soil.

Double-rowing has been standard practice for many years, the plantlets set 10 to 12 in (25 30 cm) apart and staggered, not opposite, in the common rows, and with 2 ft (60 cm) between the two rows. An alley 3, 5 1/2 or 6 ft (.9, 1.6 or 1.8 m) wide is maintained between the pairs, allowing for plant populations of 17,400, 15,800 or 14,500 per acre (42,700, 37,920 or 33,800 per ha) respectively. Close spacing gives highest total crop weight—e.g. 18,000 plants/acre = 28.8 tons (43,200 plants/ha = 69.12 tons). However, various trials have shown that overcrowding has a negative effect, reducing fruit size and elongating the form undesirably, and it reduces the number of slips and suckers per plant.

Some plantings are mulched with bagasse. In large operations, asphalt-treated paper, or black plastic mulch is regarded as essential. It retards weeds, retains warmth in cool seasons, reduces loss of soil moisture, and can be laid by machines during the sterilization and pre-fertilization procedures. Mulch necessitates removal of basal leaves of crowns, slips and suckers and the use of a tool to punch a hole at the pre-marked planting site for the insertion of each plantlet. The mulch is usually rolled onto rounded beds 3 1/4 ft (1 m) wide.

Mechanical planting

Research on the potential of machines to replace the hard labour of planting pineapples was begun in Hawaii in 1945. A homemade device was first employed in Queensland in 1953. Early semi-mechanical planters were self-propelled platforms with driver and two men who made the holes in the mulch and set the plants in place. With a 2-row planter, 3 men can set 7,000 plants per hour of operation. Frequent stops are necessary to reload with planting material. With improved equipment, mechanical planting has become standard practice in large plantations everywhere. The most sophisticated machines have attachments which concurrently apply premixed fertilizer and lay a broad centre strip of mulch, set the plantlets along each edge, and place a narrow strip along the outer sides. The only manual operation, apart from driving, is feeding of the plantlets to the planting unit. With this system, up to 50,000 plants have been set out per day.  http://businessdiary.com.ph/4473/pineapple-production-guide/#ixzz4vI09YZA1

 

Weed control

For the control of most broad-leaved weeds and annual grasses, contact herbicides can be used. Apply pre-emergence herbicides immediately after planting the pineapples, before root development and weed emergence.

 

The herbicide should be applied according to the type of soil:

Initial weed killer application (spray)

• 3-5 kg bromacil/ha: low rate for sandy soils
• 3-5 l diuron/ha: low rate for sandy soils
• 5-6 l atrazine/ha: where euphorbia is a problem
• 3-4 l ametryn/ha: if weeds are already present
• Booster applications (at 12 months interval)
• 2 l diuron/ha
• 2 kg bromacil/ha: at grower’s discretion
• 4-6 l atrazine/ha: if euphorbia is present
• 3-4 l ametryn/ha: if weeds are already present

http://www.nda.agric.za/docs/pineapple/pineapple.htm

 

Pre-Planting Irrigation

Gardeners generally start a new pineapple plant by using the green top of a pineapple fruit, which is twisted off of the ripe fruit. After the bottom leaves get trimmed off of the green top, the top is placed in perpetual irrigation in the form of soaking. For the best sprouting results, the pineapple top should sit in approximately 1/2 inches of water. After three to four weeks, the bottom of the stem that’s soaking in the water will produce new roots and the top is ready for transplanting into the ground. To prevent stagnation or rotting, the water used to irrigate the pineapple top should be exchanged for fresh water every couple of days.

Planting Irrigation

Because pineapple plants are drought tolerant, the schedule for irrigation at the time of planting and thereafter should be intermittent. Once a newly rooted pineapple top gets planted, the planting site receives immediate irrigation with enough water to moisten the dirt to a depth of 6 to 8 inches. After the initial irrigation, apply water only once every three to four days, giving the soil time to dry out between watering.

 

Fertilizer Irrigation

Pineapple plants aren’t very finicky when it comes to soil nutrient levels. However, regular fertilization encourages the best flower production, and therefore the best fruit production. Once a month, use a soluble houseplant fertilizer, diluted in water, to irrigate the pineapple plant instead of the standard water-only irrigation. Any liquid fertilizer labeled for use on houseplants will suffice. The fertilizer should be applied according to its manufacturer-specific guidelines.

 

Irrigation Conservation

Two cultural practices can enhance soil moisture retention and improve your irrigation practices. The first is the addition of organic matter to the soil at the time of planting. Examples include compost and aged manure, which is spread 2 to 3 inches thick on the surface of the planting site and stirred into the top foot of top soil. This improves the soil structure and increases soil drainage, ensuring that the water used during irrigation spreads evenly among the pineapple plant’s roots. Without this organic matter, the pineapple plant’s roots can drown in the waterlogged dirt. The second cultural practice is mulch. When bark chips, wood chips or similar matter is spread in a 2- to 3-inch-thick layer around the pineapple plant, it helps lock moisture in the dirt while also keeping weeds at bay.

http://homeguides.sfgate.com/irrigation-pineapples-44759.html

 

 

 

Fertilizer Application

Dry Fertilizers

Choose a dry fertilizer that provides 6 to 10 percent nitrogen, 6 to 10 percent phosphoric acid and 6 to 10 percent potash. These are represented by the NPK on the label of the fertilizer. The fertilizer you choose should also contain 4 to 6 percent magnesium (Mg). Apply 1 to 2 ounces every eight weeks for the first three months. In months four to six, apply 1 to 3 ounces every eight weeks. At 6 to 12 months, use 2 to 6 ounces of fertilizer. At 12 to 16 months, use 3 to 6 ounces. After 16 months, use 17 to 24 ounces of fertilizer every eight weeks.

 

Liquid Fertilizers

You can also feed your pineapple with a liquid fertilizer that is sprayed on the leaves. This is called foliar feeding. These should be applied every 8 to 10 weeks. Liquid fertilizer should have about the same NPK and Mg ratio as dry fertilizer.

 

Micronutrients

Two or three times a year, you can also use a foliage spray that contains zinc and manganese. Some of these sprays may also contain iron. If they do not, and if your regular fertilizer does not contain iron, use a 1 percent ferrous sulfate solution every eight to 10 weeks.

 

Compost and Mulch

Pineapples do not need much compost to thrive. If you’d like to use compost, mix a small amount in the soil before you plant your pineapple. This will help the soil hold water and nutrients that your pineapple will need. Mulch may also be used to help keep soil moist between waterings and will prevent weeds from competing with your pineapple for nutrients. If you use mulch, keep it 8 to 12 inches from the base of the plant to prevent pests from moving in and to keep air circulating properly. http://homeguides.sfgate.com/pineapple-plant-fertilizer-37716.html

 

 

Common Pests and Diseases

Marbling
Acetobacter spp.
Erwinia herbicola

Symptoms

Yellow to red or very dark brown discoloration of fruit flesh; infected tissues develop a granular texture with woody consistency and speckled color; single or multiple fruitlets may be affected; vascular system may appear speckled right down to core of fruit; symptoms develop during the last month of fruit maturation.

Cause

Bacteria

 

Comments

Emergence of the disease is favored by warm, wet weather

Management

There are currently no methods of controlling the disease; the pineapple variety Smooth Cayenne appears to be moderately resistant to the disease

 

Bacterial heart rot and fruit collapse
Erwinia chrysanthemi

Symptoms

Water-soaked lesions on the white basal sections of leaves in the central whorl which may spread to all leaves in the central whorl; midportions of leaves become olive green in color with a bloated appearance; infected fruits exude juices and the shell becomes olive green; cavities form within the fruit

Cause

Bacterium

 

 

Comments

Disease is thought to be spread from the juices of infected fruits; bacteria in the juice can enter leaves through wounds; ants acts as vectors for the bacteria

Management

Remove and destroy infected fruits; avoid the use of infected crowns for seed material to prevent spread of the disease; planting to avoid flowering when adjacent field is fruiting can reduce disease development; use of miticides and control of ants can significantly reduce disease incidence

Butt rot, Black rot & White leaf spot
Chalara paradoxa

Symptoms

Soft black rot which begins at the area where the seed piece detaches from the mother plant; entire seed piece may be rotted; black rot of fruit causes a soft, watery rot which darkens with time; small brown, wet spots develop on leaves; leaf spots enlarge and turn gray-brown with light brown margins.

Cause

Fungus

Comments

Fungus survives in soil and pineapple residue; infects plants through fresh wounds

Management

Seed material should be stored on mother plants during dry weather and with good air circulation; freshly removed seed material should be dipped in an appropriate fungicide within 12 hours of removal from the mother plant; avoiding bruising and wounding of fruit during harvest helps to reduce black rot; harvested fruit should be dipped in an appropriate fungicide within 6-12 hours of harvest to prevent disease development during shipping

Mealybugs (Pineapple mealybug)
Dysmicoccus brevipes

 

 

Symptoms

Flattened oval to round disc-like insect covered in waxy substance on tree branches; insects attract ants which may also be present; insect colony may also be associated with growth of sooty mold due to fungal colonization of sugary honeydew excreted by the insect; plants may show symptoms of mealybug wilt (see entry)

Cause

Insect

 

Comments

Insects have a wide host range; often tended by ants which farm them for their sugary honeydew secretions; transmit mealybug wilt in pineapple

 

Management

Mealybugs can potentially be controlled by natural enemies such as lady beetles; ant populations which tend the mealybugs should be treated with an appropriate insecticide

Phytophthora heart and root rot
Phytophthora spp.

 

Symptoms of Phytophthora root rot in pineapple field

Phytophthora symptoms on pineapple fruit

 

Pineapple heart rot

Phytophthora symptoms on pineapple

 

Symptoms of Phytophthora root rot in pineapple field

Symptoms

Young leaves failing to elongate and turning chlorotic; heart leaves wilting and turning brown; terminal whorl can be easily pulled from mother plant; water-soaked tissue at base of leaves; foul smell; leaves may be turning red and yellow with necrotic leaf margins and leaf tips; plants can easily be pulled out of the ground; fruits color prematurely

Cause

Oomycete

 

Comments

Fungi can survive in soil and plant debris for many years

Management

Planting in raised beds helps to drain the soil and reduces incidence of the disease; mulch from pineapple debris should be avoided; pre-planting dips and foliar applications of Fosetyl Al are very effective at controlling the disease

Mealybug wilt
Pineapple wilt virus (PWV)

Pineapple plants infected with mealybug wilt

Symptoms

Leaves turning red; tips of leaves become withered and turn brown; plants can be easily removed from the soil

Cause

Virus

 

Comments

Virus is transmitted by mealybugs; ants protect mealybug populations from predators and parasites and can allow mealybugs populations to reach very damaging levels if left uncontrolled

Management

Ants should be controlled with an appropriate insecticide https://plantvillage.org/topics/pineapple/infos

 

 

Harvesting

It is difficult to judge when the pineapple is ready to be harvested. The grower must depend a great deal on experience. Size and colour change alone are not fully reliable indicators. Conversion of starch into sugars takes place rapidly in just a few days before full maturity. In general, for the fresh fruit market, the summer crop is harvested when the eye shows a light pale green colour. At this season, sugar content and volatile flavours develop early and steadily over several weeks. The winter crop is about 30 days slower to mature, and the fruits are picked when there is a slight yellowing around the base. Even then, winter fruit tends to be more acid and have a lower sugar level than summer fruit, and the harvest period is short. Fruits for canning are allowed to attain a more advanced stage. But overripe fruits are deficient in flavour and highly perishable.

Some people judge ripeness and quality by snapping a finger against the side of the fruit. A good, ripe fruit has a dull, solid sound; immaturity and poor quality are indicated by a hollow thud.

In manual harvesting, one man cuts off or breaks off the fruits (depending on the cultivar) and tosses them to a truck or passes them to 2 other workers with baskets who convey them to boxes in which they are arranged with the stems upward for the removal of bracts and application of a 3% solution of benzoic acid on the cut stem of all fruits not intended for immediate processing. The harvested fruits must be protected from rain and dew. If moist, they must be dried before packing. All defective fruits are sorted out for use in processing.

If the work is semi-mechanized, the harvesters de-crown and trim the fruits and place them on a 30-ft conveyor boom which extends across the rows and carries the fruits to a bin on a forklift which loads it onto a truck or trailer. Some conveyors take the fruits directly into the canning factory from the field. In most regions of the world, pineapples are commonly marketed with crowns intact, but there is a growing practice of removing the crowns for planting. For the fresh fruit market, a short section of stem is customarily left on to protect the base of the fruit from bruising during shipment.

Total mechanical harvesting is achieved by 2 hydraulically operated conveyors with fingers on the top conveyor to snap off the fruit, the lower conveyor carrying it away to the de-crowners. After the fruit has been conveyed away, the workers go through the field to collect the crowns (where they have been left on the tops of the plants) and place them on the conveyors for a trip to the bins which are then fork lifted and the crowns dumped into a planting machine. http://businessdiary.com.ph/4473/pineapple-production-guide/#ixzz4vI19d1Kd